How Long Can Babies Be Alive in Ewe Womb if Ewe Dies

Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology. 2007 : 680–695.

Lambing Direction and Neonatal Care

Guest Editor (s): ROBERT Southward. YOUNGQUIST, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM

Professor and Associate Chairman, Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri

Guest Editor (s): WALTER R. THRELFALL, DVM, MS, PhD, Diplomate Deed

Theriogenology Expanse, Section of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

PRELAMBING Management OF PREGNANT EWES

Midgestation

Approximately xl days subsequently the ram is removed from the flock, scanning for pregnancy using real-fourth dimension ultrasound examination is recommended to identify those animals that are not pregnant. To improve nutritional management of late-gestation ewes, fetal number besides should exist determined and ewes classified by body condition score.

Pregnant ewes tin be grouped for feeding as follows:

• • Ewes with singles in good condition
• • Ewes with twins in skillful status and ewes with singles in poor status
• • Ewes with triplets or more and ewes with twins in poor status

I Month earlier Commencement Expected Lambing Appointment

The following direction procedures should be performed routinely approximately 1 month before lambing:

• • Ewes should receive "booster" immunization with a multiway clostridial vaccine that includes antigens effective against tetanus, pulpy kidney (Clostridium perfringens type D), enterotoxemia (C. perfringens blazon C), malignant edema (Clostridium chauvoei and Clostridium septicum), and Black's disease (Clostridium novyi). If the ewes have non had a primary series as lambs, or if the previous vaccination was administered more than 12 months previously, and so a principal serial should be given starting at 2 months before the first expected lambing date. A vaccine that contains antigens to Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (the agent of caseous lymphadenitis) can be included if the affliction is present in the flock.
• • Shear or, in sheep maintained outdoors in inclement weather, crutch (remove wool from the perineal or escutcheon area) all pregnant ewes. Shearing increases dry matter intake, is associated with improved fetal lamb growth, and improves udder cleanliness for nursing lambs.
• • Increase energy and energy density of ration.
• • Increase free energy to ewes in poor torso condition.
• • Loose, clean free-choice mineral formulated for sheep, with added salt to increment palatability, should be available at all times. Special attention should exist paid to providing adequate calcium if cereal hays are fed; supplemental selenium, cobalt, copper, iodine, and molybdenum if regional soils and forages are known to be deficient; and vitamin E and vitamin A if stored feeds are fed.
• • If sheep are bunk fed, feeder space should let all ewes to eat at in one case (i.due east., a minimum of twoscore cm [16 inches] of feeder space per meaning ewe) (Table 91-1 ).

  Table 91-1

  Housing Requirements for Ewes and Nursing Lambs

  Production Period	Animate being Course	Housing Type	Space	Numbers
  Tardily gestation and lambing	Ewes	Pen feeder	sixteen ftii/ewe 20 inches of feeder infinite/ewe for limit-fed animals, 6 inches for costless-choice–fed animals	<forty ewes/pen
  		Waterer	25–fifty ewes/bowl, fifteen–25 ewes/foot of tank
  1–iii days of age	Ewes and lambs	Claiming pen	4–five ft/ewe-lamb pair	12 pens/100 ewes: natural convenance 40 pens/100 ewes: synchronized breeding
  Lactation	Ewes with lambs	Pen	twenty ft2 per ewe-lamb pair; actress five ft2 for prolific breeds	2–4 days old: five–10 ewes-lambs/pen
  				5–14 days old: xx–40 ewes-lambs/pen
  				xiv days to weaning: 50–100 ewes-lambs/pen
  		Feeder and waterer as for gestating ewes
  Nursing and early weaning (<28 days)	Lambs	Pitter-patter area	ii ft2/lamb ii-inches of feeder infinite/lamb	Every bit for nursing lambs; 25/pen for early weaned lambs

  Data from Canadian Farm Buildings Handbook, Agriculture and Agrifood Canada.

• • If sheep are housed in a barn or dry out lot, additional space must be immune for pregnancy (a minimum of 1.4 thousand² [16 square feet] per ewe) (see Table 91-1).
• • Handling with an anthelmintic is given to forbid preparturient rise in fecal egg count. This recommendation may exist modified according to regional conditions.
• • If sheep are shorn or if warranted, treatment for external parasites (lice, keds, and mange) is given.
• • For ewes lambing at pasture, supplementation with a coccidiostat in the mineral premix may be helpful to reduce contamination of lambing grounds.

Ii Weeks before First Expected Lambing Engagement

The lambing area is prepared every bit follows:

• Lambing on pasture: Straw bales are positioned to create a windbreak and to bed lambing grounds. Later on lambing is finished, harbinger tin can be gathered in and burned or composted. Protection against predators (e.g., guard animals) should be ensured.

• Lambing inside: Ventilation must be adequate for beast numbers. Temperature fluctuations where young lambs are to be housed should exist avoided. Edifice or pens should be cleaned out and disinfected and fresh bedding applied to lambing area.

Lambing and lamb processing equipment and medications should be bachelor (Box 91-1 ).

Box 91-1

Lambing Equipment and Supplies Recommended for Sheep Producers

Lambing Equipment

Clippers or hand shears for crutching ewes

Prolapse retainers and soft rope

Chlorhexidine scrub for cleaning perineum

Clean terrycloth towels

Two clean buckets: one for warm water to wash, one for cold water to revive lambs

Sterile lubricant (e.g., K-Y jelly)

Plastic disposable rectal sleeves

Nylon lambing ropes and lamb snare

Identification Equipment

Paint for spraying/branding lambs

Ear tags and tagger

Tattoo and ink (optional)

Lambing diary

Lamb Feeding Equipment

Tube feeding kit with rubber tube and threescore-ml syringe or 250-ml squeeze bottle

Source of frozen colostrum (bovine, caprine, or ovine)

Lamb milk replacer with nipples and bottles

Lamb bar (optional)

Equipment for fostering lambs (e.g., head gate)

Lamb Processing Equipment

2.5% iodine for painting umbilical cord stump

Sterile syringes: ane-ml, iii-ml, and 60-ml

Sterile needles: 22-gauge and 20-estimate, 1-inch

Empty Javex bottle with lid for sharps disposal

Warming box for chilled lambs

Digital thermometer with a readout to 36° C

Equipment for tail docking and castration (rings, hot-docker, Burdizzo emasculators)

Medications^*

Propylene glycol and deluge gun or drench bottle

Injectable vitamin E and selenium production labeled for newborn lambs

Multivalent clostridial vaccine

Tetanus antitoxin (optional)

Contagious ecthyma vaccine (optional)

Calcium borogluconate for subcutaneous administration

l% dextrose to exist diluted for treatment of hypoglycemic lambs

Oral electrolyte (registered for dogie utilise)

Antibiotics: penicillin and long-acting oxytetracycline

Larvicidal anthelmintic

PARTURITION (LAMBING)

Gestation length varies considerably with brood of sheep. Information technology besides varies inside brood with number of fetuses being carried. Triplet-bearing ewes usually lamb before single-bearing ewes bred on the same day. On average, sheep gestate for 145 days. Normal lambings accept been reported every bit early equally twenty-four hour period 137, merely generally sheep do non lamb earlier than twenty-four hours 142.

At i calendar week before the first expected lambing date (24-hour interval 138 later on the ram is introduced to the convenance flock), ewes should be observed every 4 to vi hours. Diseases to detect for include signs of pregnancy toxemia, which include refusal to consume grain, opisthotonos, teeth grinding, fine muscle tremors, and coma; signs of hypocalcemia, which include stilted gait, excessive salivation, and recumbency with hind legs extended behind; vaginal prolapse; abortion; mastitis; and rupture of the prepubic tendon. If whatsoever of these conditions occurs, prompt treatment should be instituted.

Signs of the starting time phase of labor include udder enlargement and engorgement with colostrum, relaxation of the pelvic ligaments, and vulvar swelling. The ewe volition split from the flock and begin nesting. If on pasture, she will seek an isolated spot with slight elevation or shut to a fence line. Ewes may seek shelter, if it is provided, in society to protect their newborn lambs from inclement weather. Within a paddock, ewes may choose the same location in which to requite birth, presumably attracted by the scent of birth fluids. In a pen, ewes may seek a corner or an open claiming pen. She volition circle, manus at the harbinger, and bleat in a low voice. She volition stop to smell any uterine or vaginal discharges. Every bit the uterine contractions become stronger and the fetus moves upwards into the pelvis, she may lie down repeatedly and strain with the caput raised.

The second stage of labor by and large takes less than an hr from the beginning of intense straining to the delivery of the lamb. Fourth dimension to commitment of lambs is approximately 30 minutes or less for a single lamb and upwards to 2 hours for triplets. Labor in primiparous ewes may take longer. No preference in time of twenty-four hours to deliver has been observed, only if disturbed, the ewe may stop labor for a few minutes until settled again. Normal presentation of the lamb is described as anterior dorsosacral with front limbs extended and preceding the nose by approximately 6 cm (2 to 4 inches). Also normal simply associated with greater risk to the safe commitment of the lamb is posterior dorsosacral with hind limbs extended. If delivery is delayed and the umbilical cord is compressed between the lamb and the pelvis of the ewe, the lamb may suffocate before delivery is complete. Afterward commitment of the lamb, the ewe stands, causing the umbilicus to rupture. The ewe turns and begins to nuzzle and lick the lamb to stimulate breathing and to clean it off.

INDUCTION OF PARTURITION

Induction of lambing tin can be done if the breeding engagement is known within an accuracy of 3 days—for case, if convenance was synchronized using hormones and only 1 breeding opportunity occurred. Ewes will respond to an injection of dexamethasone (16 mg given intramuscularly [IM]) or betamethasone (10 to 12 mg IM) after day 137, just it is preferred to wait until twenty-four hour period 142 to ensure good fetal viability. Commonly, producers may wait for the first few lambs to be born and then induce the remainder of the meaning ewes. Lambing generally occurs between 36 and threescore hours after induction. Induction is not associated with an increased risk of retained fetal membranes. In instances of vaginal prolapse or pregnancy toxemia, it may be advisable to induce as early equally twenty-four hours 137, with the goal of saving the ewe.

MANAGEMENT OF DYSTOCIA

Mutual Causes of Dystocia

Causes of dystocia may include the following:

• • Malpresentation of the lamb
• • Maternofetal disproportion
• • Poor cervical dilation
• • Uterine torsion
• • Uterine inertia

Malpresentation of the lamb (or lambs) may manifest in any of various ways: one or both front limbs retained; head retroflexed; true breech presentation, in which the lamb is in the posterior dorsosacral position but the hind legs are flexed frontward; dorsopubic or dorsoiliac position; and in the example of multiple births, presence of multiple limbs or heads, or of more than one lamb, in the pelvis at the same time.

Maternofetal disproportion most unremarkably occurs when ewes that are carrying singles are fed too well in tardily gestation. Occasionally the ewe may only accept a congenitally modest pelvis, or the disproportion may exist the upshot of mating a small-breed ewe and a big-breed ram.

Poor cervical dilation may be due to vaginal prolapse; improper presentation, position, or posture of the lambs; fetal death before stage 1 labor (e.g., from abortion diseases); or possibly impairment to the cervix from chronic exposure to phytoestrogens. Ringwomb is the term used to describe incomplete cervical dilation that is unresponsive to manual dilation. The neck is hard, equally it is before phase 1 labor. This condition occurs more than frequently in primigravida lambs just may exist seen in sheep of any historic period. Nearly flocks experience occasional cases of ringwomb, but outbreaks in which up to xv% of ewes are afflicted have been described.

Uterine torsion occurs occasionally and tin be diagnosed on vaginal exam. It may be confused with poor cervical dilation.

Primary uterine inertia may occur if the ewe is ill (eastward.g., from hypocalcemia or pregnancy toxemia); secondary inertia occurs when the ewe is exhausted subsequently a prolonged labor.

Correction of Dystocia

The practitioner should ensure that the proper tools and protection are available and that the gloves are well lubricated (encounter Box 91-ane). The uterine wall is friable, and then but gentle manipulation is advised. A tear in the uterus leads to peritonitis, which is not well tolerated in sheep.

If extensive manipulation is required, use of an epidural anesthetic process is advised. The epidural injection generally is performed at the sacrococcygeal infinite. Subsequently the expanse is clipped and disinfected, a 20-gauge needle is inserted at an angle of 20 degrees to the tail when held horizontally. Lidocaine hydrochloride is then injected at a dose rate of 0.5 mg/kg of body weight (1 ml of 2% lidocaine/40 kg). Boosted analgesia may be obtained past combining xylazine with the lidocaine hydrochloride at a dose of 0.07 mg/kg of torso weight (0.xiv ml of 2% xylazine added to each milliliter of lidocaine hydrochloride). Adult ewes may range in mature body weight from threescore to eighty kg, depending on breed and maturity. This dosage may cause paresis and clutter of the hindlimbs for up to 8 hours.

With a retained front limb, if the lamb is modest, sometimes it may exist extracted by gently pulling with the leg still dorsum. With big lambs, however (or pocket-sized ewes), it is necessary to correct the limb position before delivery is attempted. It generally is necessary to repulse the lamb gently dorsum into the uterus if possible and and so, later on tracing the limb from the shoulder and elbow, claw the retained leg below the elbow with a finger, bending the carpus and then the fetlock in society to enhance the pes over the brim of the pelvis. The practitioner must have care to protect the wall of the uterus from the foot by cupping the human foot in the hand. If the fetus cannot be repulsed or if room in the pelvis is insufficient to allow correction of the position, a cesarean section is indicated if the lamb is withal alive, or if the lamb is dead, a partial fetotomy is indicated. Viability is determined by checking for the following: suckle reflex, gag reflex, corneal reflex. If none are present, a partial fetotomy is performed past removing the caput and cervix to increase room to reposition the leg.

With lateral retroflexion of the caput, again, an endeavour is made to repulse the lamb in order to increase the bachelor space for correction of the caput position. A lamb snare effectually the head and front limbs tin be used to aid guide the head around. Traction on the lower jaw is avoided unless the lamb is dead, because this commonly will upshot in a fracture to the mandible. If this maneuver is unsuccessful, cesarean section if the lamb is alive or fractional fetotomy if the lamb is dead should be considered.

With multiple fetuses, care should be taken to trace limbs and head dorsum to the body and identify which limbs belong to which lambs before repulsion or extraction is attempted.

Maternofetal disproportion may be present concurrently with malposture (eastward.g., caput or limb retroflexion). In one case the lamb is in the proper presentation, position, and posture, either soft ropes or the lamb puller tin can exist used to utilise gentle traction, ideally to both the front limbs and the head simultaneously. To determine if the lamb can be delivered vaginally, the examiner can assess whether both elbows and the head can be pulled into the pelvis at the aforementioned fourth dimension. Inability to do so with relative ease indicates that vaginal commitment cannot be done safely for the ewe or the fetus. Enough of lubrication is used to assist extraction. While the lamb is being pulled, after the thorax is clear of the vagina, the lamb is rotated approximately thirty degrees to prevent hip lock.

With poor cervical dilation, the practitioner attempts gentle transmission dilation, keeping the paw and arm well lubricated. If afterward 10 minutes no progress is observed, the problem may exist true ringwomb. In this condition, the cervix does not undergo the normal parturient softening. The cervical softening process starts with the prepartal drop in progesterone. This triggers an infiltration of leukocytes, which causes collagen deposition and hence softening. The cause for failure of the cervical softening process is non known. Some success at treatment has been reported with application of an estrogen production or prostaglandin E_{two α} to the cervical surface area, or with injection of such agents, and followed in a few hours by oxytocin. The alternative is cesarean department.

With uterine torsion, the practitioner must determine the direction in which the torsion has occurred and and then either gently flip the uterus around or hold the fetus and accept assistants roll the ewe in the reverse direction of the torsion. In approximately 50% of the cases, poor cervical dilation is nowadays even afterwards detorsion has been accomplished. Cesarean section should be considered in those cases.

If uterine inertia is due to hypocalcemia, the ewe is given parenteral calcium before delivery. This is done past tiresome intravenous assistants of l to 100 ml of a commercial calcium borogluconate solution, followed past an additional 50 to 100 ml injected subcutaneously.

After commitment of the lamb primarily responsible for the dystocia, oxytocin (30 to 50 IU) tin exist given (unless the dystocia is due to uterine inertia). Afterward ten minutes, the vagina is checked for the presence of additional lambs. If uterine inertia is present, both horns are carefully explored to their ends to locate more than lambs.

Cesarean Section

Anesthesia for performing a cesarean section can exist obtained using one of the following methods.

A line or inverted "L" block of two% lidocaine (without epinephrine) tin can be given on the left flank if a flank laparotomy will be performed, or given ventral midline if that approach will be used.

For the left flank simply, paravertebral anesthesia to block the T13, L1, and L2 paravertebral nerves is achieved using the post-obit method: The midpoint of the commencement lumbar process is confirmed by palpation, and a 6-cm spinal needle is inserted 2.5 to 3.0 cm from the midline forth a perpendicular line running from the midpoint of the first lumbar transverse process to the spine and at a depth of 4.0 to v.0 cm. The needle may need to be directed forward to walk information technology off the front of the transverse process. Afterward the needle is felt to penetrate the ligament betwixt T13 and L1, iv to 5 ml of one% lidocaine hydrochloride is injected to cake the 13th thoracic nervus. the needle is retracted and an boosted 2 ml is injected to block the dorsal co-operative of the T13 nerve. The needle is then withdrawn and redirected caudally to cake L1 and is walked off the dorsum of the first transverse process. Another 4 to 5 mL is given; and then the needle is withdrawn slightly and another 2 ml is injected. To block L2, this technique is repeated but simply anterior to the 2d lumbar process.

An epidural using lidocaine, xylazine, or a combination of both (every bit described previously) may be used in conjunction with a line or inverted AL cake.

Surgical technique is standard. If the fetuses are dead, the uterus should exist packed off using sterile drapes before an incision is made. After the first lamb is extracted, both horns should be advisedly explored to the tip to find the presence of more lambs. The practitioner should avert incising any caruncles because this may outcome in excessive bleeding. After suturing, oxytocin is administered in one case and parenteral antibiotics are given for 3 to 5 days.

Fetotomy

Not exceptionally, a dystocia may not be detected until the lambs have died, or in some instances, have become emphysematous. If the lambs cannot be pulled, a fetotomy is preferred to a cesarean department. If the fetus is emphysematous, the uterus likewise may be compromised and friable. A subcutaneous fetotomy can be performed using a finger knife to avoid vaginal or uterine damage. Once more, oxytocin and antibiotics are given at the completion of the procedure.

Care AND Management OF THE NEONATAL LAMB

Resuscitation of the Newborn Lamb

Lambs normally volition begin to breathe within thirty seconds of delivery. Techniques to stimulate the lamb that is slow to breathe include rubbing the head and thorax vigorously with a dry towel, pouring cold water in the ear, and stimulating the sneeze reflex by tickling the nostrils. Swinging the lamb may assistance extract fluid from the nose simply makes it hard for the lamb to breathe because of centrifugal pressure level on the diaphragm. Oral cavity-to-nose resuscitation should not be done because of the take chances of contracting a zoonotic infection from the lamb, such equally Chlamydophila abortus or Coxiella burnetii infection. A technique of inflating the lungs that has been used with some success is as follows: A lamb stomach tube is inserted into the esophagus of the lamb. Past means of gentle pressure applied with a thumb and forefinger, the esophagus is closed off distal to the cease of the tube. The other paw is used to shut off the mouth and nostrils. The clinician softly blows once into the tube. With the esophagus closed off, the air will be forced downwardly the trachea into the lungs. The tube is removed after delivery of ane breath, and the lamb is reassessed.

Normal Beliefs at Nascency

Lambs should be standing within 10 to 20 minutes of birth. The normal cleaning behavior of the ewe stimulates them to stand. They are then attracted to the ventral line of the ewe'south abdomen and will follow it down to where it meets the udder. The ewe'southward licking and nudging behavior encourages a suckle reflex. A low udder or an udder covered with wool, or pendulous, misshapen teats, volition interfere with successful nursing. The licking also serves to provide olfactory stimulation to aid in maternal recognition of the lamb. This bonding generally occurs in the first 60 minutes after birth. It is critical that the ewe have an undisturbed opportunity to bond with her lambs, without the risk of attempts at stealing them by some other ewe. Circling behavior is abnormal and indicates that the bonding process is failing. Failure to bond and failure to successfully find the teat are major gamble factors for hypothermia/hypoglycemia and septicemia.

The hazard of successful bonding volition improve if the ewe and lambs are provided with a repose area, undisturbed by other sheep. Mothering is optimized by circumscribed them in a claiming pen (jug) for 12 to 24 hours. The producer can more easily cheque the status of the lambs (tummy fill and mental attitude) and the beliefs of the ewe (for signs of rejection) at the time when lambs are virtually at risk. Claiming pen size should be a minimum of 4 feet by 4 feet; for larger breeds or ewes with multiple lambs, 4 anxiety by 5 anxiety is preferred (Fig. 91-i ). The bottom panels should exist spaced shut together to prevent the lamb from escaping. Ewes should be provided with fresh water and feed. Estrus lamps are optional and should not be used one time the lambs are dry.

Plan for a claiming pen.

(Courtesy of Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Ontario, Canada.)

Passive Amnesty

If the ewe is fed correctly in tardily gestation, is properly vaccinated, and does not accept mastitis, she should be able to provide the lamb with colostrum of adequate quantity and quality. Exceptions to this rule of thumb may be observed with maiden ewes and with ewes that have more than 2 lambs. If the ewe has inadequate colostrum or if the lamb is too weak to nurse properly, so the lamb should be fed colostrum at a charge per unit of fifty ml/kg of body weight within 2 hours of birth and at rate of 200 to 250 ml/kg of torso weight over the first 24 hours of life. If the lamb is weak, the colostrum should be administered by stomach tube.

Alternate-Source Colostrum

If the ewe has inadequate colostrum or is considered a risk to pass on specific diseases (eastward.g., ovine progressive pneumonia [maedi-visna], Johne'south disease), colostrum obtained from other animals tin be fed. Most ideal is sheep colostrum from a ewe of known health status. Colostrum may be frozen up to 6 months without loss of quality. It should be frozen in 50-ml (approximately 2-ounce) aliquots to facilitate thawing. Rapid thawing with heat (e.one thousand., microwave on high) will denature the immunoglobulins. It is recommended initially to freeze the colostrum in an ice cube tray and then, once information technology is frozen, to transfer the cubes to a freezer bag labeled with the donor'southward identification data and the date of freezing. Only first-milk colostrum should be used.

Bovine and caprine colostrum too may be used, only associated risks have been recognized. Ideally, source animals should not be infected with infectious agents that may cause disease in sheep, such as bovine leukosis virus, Mycobacterium avium spp. paratuberculosis, bovine viral diarrhea virus, caprine arthritis encephalitis virus, and Mycoplasma mycoides spp. mycoides. The quality of the colostrum can be improved past vaccinating the donor animals against clostridial diseases.

Anemia due to an unknown factor in cow colostrum has been reported in lambs 1 to iii weeks of age. This factor appears to increase the charge per unit of ruby-red blood prison cell destruction both in circulation and in the os marrow of affected lambs. They announced weak and pale. Although many recover without treatment, those severely afflicted, every bit indicated by a packed cell volume less than ten%, can be transfused past administering claret (10 ml of whole blood with anticoagulant per kg of trunk weight given intravenously or by intraperitoneal instillation).

Antibodies obtained from nonhost species may have a shorter one-half-life. A consequence of this limitation may exist a higher run a risk of infectious diseases such as pneumonia. This also is true of commercial colostrum supplements, which are made from bovine sources. Whey-based products may not contain adequate levels of immunoglobulins. It is not known if serum-derived colostrum supplements provide sufficient protection to lambs.

Umbilical Intendance

Many opportunistic pathogens may gain entry through the stumps of the umbilical veins or arteries. A solution of two.5% iodine in an alcohol base should be used to dip the unabridged navel before long after nativity. Solutions containing a higher concentration of iodine may crusade chemical burning and inflammation. Products containing glycerin (e.m., commercial teat dips) should not be used, because these prevent drying of the umbilical tissue. Paper dispensable cups should exist used, and backlog dip and the cup discarded afterward.

Vitamin E and Selenium Supplementation

If the flock is located in a selenium-deficient area and the pregnant ewes have non been fairly supplemented, newborn lambs should be injected with a commercial vitamin E plus selenium grooming. The single dose of 0.75 mg of selenium, given by the intramuscular or subcutaneous route, should not be repeated. Toxicity and death take been associated with as piddling as 1.0 mg of selenium. It is safer and more effective to supplement pregnant ewes at a rate of 0.ane to 0.three mg of selenium/kg of dry matter (DM) total ration, depending on the natural levels in the feed and governmental restrictions. If the ewe is to be injected with a commercial production rather than supplemented in the feed, three mg/45 kg of body weight is given up to every 2 weeks in the final trimester. Only products labeled for utilize in adult sheep should be used. Although vitamin Due east does not cross the placental barrier, information technology should be supplemented to the pregnant ewe at xv IU/kg DM total ration (1.five IU = 1.0 mg/dl of α-tocopherol). This will increment vitamin E levels in the colostrum. Lamb rations should contain 20 to 40 IU vitamin E/kg DM full ration. Vitamin A and D injections can be administered to gestating ewes if the ration is scarce.

Identification

Each lamb should be assigned a specific identifier at birth for two reasons: to identify lambs to retain as replacements at a future appointment and to identify ewe-lamb pairs. Methods include ear tagging, pigment branding, and spraying on the dorsum or side with the lamb's identification, the ewe's identification with or without the nascency order number and litter size (eastward.chiliad., 132P-13 would be the firstborn lamb of ewe 132P out of a litter of triplets, and 132P-33 would be the third-born lamb of ewe 132P), or a unique design (e.g., a spiral). The ewe besides should be paint-branded at the same fourth dimension—for example, 132P-3 means that she has 3 lambs at foot. Permanent identification (tag or tattoo) can be given to lambs at nascence or at weaning.

Contagious Ecthyma Vaccination

If the flock has significant problems caused past contagious ecthyma virus infection (mastitis, lamb losses, or diminished productivity), then information technology may exist advisable to vaccinate the lambs at nativity with a commercial vaccine (if bachelor). The vaccine should non be used in unaffected flocks and need non be used if the illness is only mildly manifested in the flock.

Taildocking and Castration

Taildocking should be routinely performed in all long-tailed breeds inside the first 7 days and preferably within the starting time 24 hours of life, only only later on the lamb has received adequate colostrum. Utilize of either rubber bands or an electric docker is the preferred method. The tail should be docked distal to the end of the tailfold and should be long enough to embrace at least the vulva in a ewe lamb. Brusque docking has been associated with increased gamble of rectal prolapse and spinal abscesses.

Castration need not exist performed in ram lambs to be marketed before puberty, to accept reward of the improved feed conversion rates of intact rams. If ram lambs are to be castrated, surgery should be performed before 7 days of age if the rubber rings or cut-and-pull technique will be used, and before xc days of historic period if the spermatic cord will be crushed. Lambs castrated with rubber rings after 7 days of age should have the string crushed first in society to destroy the fretfulness. This appears to reduce the pain associated with that procedure. Lambs born to inadequately vaccinated ewes should be given tetanus antitoxin (250–300 IU administered subcutaneously) at the time of docking or castration. Analgesia at the time of castration or taildocking has been used with variable success. Injection of long-acting local anesthetics proximal to the surgical site may offer temporary relief. Postoperative analgesia may be best provided by administering xylazine before surgery, only animals should exist constantly observed until the sedative effects have worn off.

Diet of the Nursing Lamb

Height milk production in ewes occurs approximately thirty days subsequently lambing, and ewe nutrition in the early on lactation catamenia should be geared to maximize this product. Ewe's milk provides nearly of the nutrient requirements for lambs until they reach 30 to 45 days of historic period. At 10 days of age, lambs volition start to consume pocket-sized amounts of solid feed, but depending on the availability of ewe'due south milk, intakes of solid feed are low until weaning. To increase intake of solid feed, texturized 16% protein "pitter-patter feed" should be available, consisting of mixed grain, pellets containing minerals and medications, and a bounden compound, commonly molasses. Feeders should be structured to prevent fecal contamination and wastage of feed. Restricted-access turkey or pig feeders work well for lambs.

Fostering or Artificial Rearing of Lambs

Indications

Indications for fostering or artificial rearing of lambs include the following:

• Dam-related: Expiry or severe illness may require separation of the lamb from its dam, or the dam may pass up the lamb. Other causes may include mastitis or other reason for insufficient milk production, poor udder conformation (also low or teats malformed), and birth of too many lambs to be reared by their dam; or another dam that has lost all her lambs is available equally a foster female parent.

• Lamb-related: The lamb is unable to nurse its dam effectively because of weakness or congenital deformity.

• Owner-specific: The producer prefers not to accept dams rear more 2 lambs, or non to have dams rear singles, to brand nutritional management easier.

Bogus Rearing of the Nursing Lamb (First 4 Weeks)

Most orphan or rejected lambs tin be raised on milk replacer until the age of 21 to 28 days, when they can exist weaned onto a high-quality creep ration such as described before. Lamb milk replacer is higher in fatty than calf or kid milk replacer, so the latter should not be used to rear lambs. An example of a good milk replacer is i containing 22% protein from milk sources, 28% fatty from animal sources, and 24% lactose. Milk replacer should be fed cold (4° C) and ad libitum from a lamb bar to prevent engorgement and abomasal bloat. In absence of a lamb bar, lambs can be bottle fed from a nipple bottle but should exist fed often (due east.k., 4 times per day). If abomasal bloat losses occur, formaldehyde added to the milk replacer (1 ml/L of milk) volition decrease losses.

Foster Rearing

When cross-fostering is used, if at all possible the weakest lambs should be left with the dam, and all fostered lambs should take received acceptable colostrum first. Successful fostering of lambs may be achieved in whatsoever of several ways, merely ultimately the attitude of the foster dam often determines the success. Mental attitude may be individual or may exist breed determined.

Interventions used to promote successful fostering include the following:

• • Manipulating the ewe's detection of scent past skinning the expressionless lamb and tying the hibernate to the foster lamb; washing the foster lamb in birth fluids or rubbing it with the fresh placenta; applying various scent blocks to the nares of the ewe.
• • Manipulating the ewe'south maternal instinct past cervical or vaginal stimulation; removing her ain lamb and returning the foster lamb back with her at the aforementioned time; "hog-tying" the back leg of the foster lamb to mimic the behavior of a newborn lamb; bringing in a dog to "threaten" the ewe.
• • Restraining the ewe so that the lamb can successfully suckle until the ewe accepts the lamb. A stanchion or head gate is the well-nigh ordinarily used device to prevent the ewe from circling. She can still boot, however, and so the lamb should be watched to ensure information technology is able to nurse.

PREVENTION OF PERINATAL LAMB MORBIDITY AND Bloodshed

The perinatal period extends from the first phase of labor. The end of this flow is less well divers only this stage tin can be divided into periods in which specific causes tend to exhibit themselves more ordinarily. For investigating lamb bloodshed, losses often are divided into those deaths that occur ante partum, during parturition, and at less than 5 to 24 hours (i.e., until the "mothering-up" procedure has finished, when bonding has occurred and lamb has ingested colostrum), 5 to 24 hours up to 48 hours (i.e., earlier acquired infections afterward nativity have caused affliction), and beyond two days. After two days of age, perinatal events tin nevertheless influence mortality, but effects generally are non observed across 2 weeks of historic period.

Excessive lamb mortality and stillbirth are important limitations on productivity. Stillbirth losses (number of lambs born dead of all lambs born) should non exceed five%. Lamb mortality levels of greater than fifteen% before weaning are not uncommon, although with good management, information technology is possible to keep losses below v%. Box 91-2 lists possible causes of perinatal lamb bloodshed.

Box 91-2

Common Causes of Perinatal Lamb Morbidity and Mortality

Prepartal ballgame diseases responsible for weak or stillborn lambs: infections due to Chlamydophila abortus, Campylobacter fetus spp. fetus and Campylobacter jejuni, Coxiella burnetii, and Toxoplasma gondii; border disease; iodine deficiency

Dystocia responsible for nascency trauma such as:

• Fractured ribs and long bones

• CNS lesions: subdural hematomas, especially in the posterior brainstem; petechiation in brain associated with hypoxia and anoxia during the birth process; lesions may not manifest as neurologic disease merely as depression and difficulty with thermoregulation

• Ruptured liver, spleen, kidney

• Edema of entrapped limb/head

Starvation, hypoglycemia

Spooky, hypothermia

Infectious diseases: abortion diseases every bit outlined above; septicemia due to failure of passive transfer; other septicemias (e.g., listeriosis); omphalophlebitis; pneumonia; diarrhea; joint sick (chlamydiosis, erysipelas)

Nutritional deficiencies: vitamin E, selenium, copper, iodine

Predation

Trauma from misadventure

Congenital malformations: atresia ani, contracted tendons, scissure palate

CNS, central nervous arrangement.

Investigation of Perinatal Lamb Mortality

A flock health management plan should include routine necropsy of all aborted fetuses and stillborn and expressionless lambs. A elementary course can be used to assistance in collecting all necessary history and data (Fig. 91-2 ). Findings on gross necropsy can easily be used to diagnose why the lamb died, and to define the management area that is responsible for the loss of the lamb.

A and B, Example of a necropsy form for investigating lamb perinatal mortality.

History

The history should include details of the farm environment and direction, equally well every bit ewe and lamb factors. Wet and cold weather condition can play an important role in lamb losses. Older ewes or ewe lambs may exist at greater risk for losing lambs. In excessively thin ewes, risks are greater for production of small lambs, prolongation of labor, and product of inadequate amounts of milk. Litter size, birth weight, and history of dystocia all are important risk factors in lamb mortality. Routine management procedures should be noted, too as any treatment lambs accept received. Notations of previous losses will help to place trouble areas.

Exam of the External Carcass

The examiner should make note of specific abnormalities:

• • Atypical condition of glaze: abnormal quality and corporeality of wool, indicating premature nascency or congenital infection with border disease virus; meconium staining, indicating stressful birth; adherent placenta, indicating lack of cleaning by the ewe
• • Saliva staining effectually the mouth, indicating endotoxemia (watery oral fissure)
• • Congenital abnormalities (e.grand., spider lamb, atresia ani, intersex, cleft palate, arthrogryposis)
• • Perineal staining from diarrhea

The footpads are examined to determine whether walking occurred before death, as indicated by some "wear" of the pads; intact footpads signify that the lamb never walked.

Skinning back the carcass, the examiner should note the following:

• • Degree of dehydration, keeping in heed that length of time since death and freezing may confound authentic ascertainment
• • Subcutaneous edema (regional or generalized); ascites, anasarca, or swollen head due to dystocia
• • Bilateral swelling on the cervix, which may exist an enlarged thyroid, suggesting goiter due to iodine deficiency
• • Umbilicus, to decide whether the umbilicus is blunt and arteries are empty, evidence that the lamb died before or during the birth process; is tapered and contains blood, evidence that the lamb survived the birth procedure; or is tapered and contains an organized adherent clot, evidence that the lamb survived the birth procedure by several hours. Hyperemia, fibrin, and purulent fabric in the umbilical region indicate omphalophlebitis.
• • The skeletal muscles, which should be checked for bear witness of white musculus affliction

The skin should be removed from the limbs and the subcutaneous tissues examined for hemorrhages, which betoken that the lamb was hypothermic before death.

For internal examination, the lamb carcass should be opened with its correct side down and the organs examined in situ. The following should be noted:

• • Evidence of pleural or peritoneal fibrin, indicating a septic condition before death. Swabs of this fluid should exist submitted for civilisation. If an agent associated with abortion is suspected, abomasal contents and thoracic fluid or heart blood should exist nerveless using sterile needles and syringes (meet Affiliate 90).
• • Blood in the peritoneal crenel, which may exist from a ruptured liver, kidney, or mesenteric or umbilical vessel and suggests trauma occurring in utero, during parturition, or post partum, depending on other findings.
• • Blood-tinged fluid in the peritoneal or pleural cavity, which may bespeak that the lamb died in utero one or 2 days before delivery.
• • The amount of dark-brown fat around the kidney and heart, which should be evaluated. Serous atrophy suggests that the lamb was hypoglycemic before death. Heart fat is depleted first, then kidney fatty.
• • Aeration of the lungs, which can be assessed quickly by dropping a piece of lung tissue in a jar of h2o to assess buoyancy, and evidence of pneumonia. Total atelectasis of the lungs indicates that the lamb never breathed. The trachea and bronchi should exist opened to examine for aspiration pneumonia (the owner may have incorrectly passed a tummy tube).
• • The tongue, diaphragm, and heart should be sectioned and examined for evidence of white muscle disease. The heart should be checked for congenital defects.
• • The abomasum should be examined for type and quantity of content. An empty abomasum or an abomasum that contains dirt or grass, along with the finding of serous atrophy of fat, suggests that the lamb survived at least 5 hours but never nursed. Detection of milkfat in the mesenteric lymphatics suggests that several hours accept passed since feeding.
• • The skull and the brain, particularly the atlanto-occipital region, should exist examined for hemorrhages, both subdural and throughout the encephalon, indicating the possibility of birth trauma.
• • The joints all should exist opened to look for testify of septic arthritis.

Past using the information gathered on gross necropsy (Fig. 91-3 ), the death of the lamb can be classified every bit follows (Fig. 91-iv ):

Algorithm for classification of lamb perinatal mortality.

Nomenclature of timing of death in lambs and common causes of bloodshed.

Prepartum—early.

The lamb appears obviously premature, with decreased or absent-minded wool glaze. This should be considered an abortion and investigated as such (see Chapter 90).

Prepartum—tardily.

The lamb appears to be term simply was delivered stillborn, with no testify of birth trauma. Although the lamb's expiry may have been from delayed parturition due to uterine inertia, it is advisable to investigate the expiry as an abortion.

Parturient.

Evidence of birth trauma is present, and the lungs are atelectatic.

Postparturient, early.

Death occurred after nascence only most often before 5 hours of age—up to 24 hours. Brownish fat stores are evident, and the lungs are partially or fully inflated. The lamb may have been weak when built-in because of infection with abortion agents, may have succumbed to birth-related injuries, with or without evidence of hypothermia, or may have been primarily hypothermic.

Late postparturient, older than 5 to 24 hours.

After 5 hours of historic period, lambs start to deplete their chocolate-brown fatty stores if they practise not receive adequate nourishment (colostrum). Mismothering, inadequate colostrum supply, and weakness due to low birth weight or nativity trauma will predispose the lamb to starvation (hypoglycemia). Upward to 48 hours of age, expiry frequently is related to principal hypoglycemia with secondary hypothermia.

Neonatal, older than 48 hours.

Although death after 48 hours may even so exist due to hypothermia or hypoglycemia secondary to birth trauma, mismothering, and other causes, after this fourth dimension infectious diseases also can occur.

Recognition and Treatment of Weak Lambs

It is of import to instruct the producer on how to recognize a ill lamb and how to apply appropriate nursing care. Hypothermia and hypoglycemia are the most common causes of lamb mortality; if recognized early, both are responsive to treatment. Afflicted lambs initially are hunched up and empty-appearing. If the problems are not detected early, these lambs volition become recumbent. If in sternal position, the lamb may rise only appears depressed and ho-hum to reply. Eventually, the lamb is laterally recumbent and comatose.

Figure 91-5 presents an algorithm for treatment for a lamb suspected of suffering from hypothermia or hypoglycemia. The customer should be instructed in proper technique for tube feeding, with specific measures to avoid aspiration pneumonia: The client sits with the lamb on his or her lap, holding the lamb'south head and neck gently in the nondominant arm. The tube is introduced slowly into the oral fissure and gently pushed toward the back of the throat. If the lamb sucks on the tube, a swallowing reflex is encouraged. In one case the tube has been swallowed, the client can feel information technology pass down the lamb's cervix in the esophagus. This maneuver should exist practiced several times until the client can recognize the feel of the rubber end passing the fingers. If the tube enters the trachea, information technology cannot be felt externally. Premeasurement of the tube will aid the client to determine if the tube has reached the abomasum. If the lamb coughs, the tube is withdrawn and some other attempt is made. Colostrum can be fed by syringe or squeeze bottle. The dose of 50 ml/kg of body weight should be fed slowly over 5 to x minutes, then that the abomasum does not overfill, leading to regurgitation. The client is instructed to kink the tube before withdrawal to prevent aspiration of milk.

Algorithm for treatment of hypothermia and hypoglycemia in neonatal lambs.

Many means to warm a lamb have been described. Immersion in warm water is the most rapid just requires that the client hold the lamb while in water and then dry out it immediately, to avoid chilling from evaporation. Placement in a warming box in which the lamb lies on a grate that allows warm air to circulate around information technology generally works the best (Fig. 91-6 ). A household hair dryer works well for this purpose. Air temperature should not exceed 41° C. A warming pad will accomplish the aforementioned thing if the lamb as well is covered with a blanket and turned oft. To the lowest degree efficient is use of a heat lamp, which offers only radiant heat to the exposed part of the lamb.

Warming box for reviving hypothermic lambs.

Lambs older than 5 hours of historic period require an energy source before warming. Failure to provide energy will result in central nervous system damage from hypoglycemia. If no suckle reflex is present, the lamb should have 20% dextrose administered into the intraperitoneal cavity. This procedure begins with drawing up 20 ml of 50% dextrose into a sixty-ml syringe and adding to it 30 ml of hot, boiled, clean water. The resultant solution should be at body temperature. Instillation into the peritoneal cavity is accomplished by hanging the lamb vertically and injecting simply off midline distal to the omphalos, using a sterile 20-estimate needle and administering ten ml/kg of body weight. After assistants, the lamb can exist warmed.

One time a lamb has received treatment for hypothermia/hypoglycemia, it and its dam should be identified for more intense observation. Factors that put lambs at risk for hypothermia and hypoglycemia include the following:

• • Poor maternal diet during gestation (reduces the number of cotyledons and placental weight; dark-brown fat stores [perirenal and pericardiac] in fetus; lamb birth weight; mammary development and subsequent milk production; colostrum quality and quantity)
• • Low nascence weight (<3 kg), which is highly correlated with poor brown fatty stores
• • High nascency weight (>5 kg), which is highly correlated with dystocia
• • Trauma or hypoxia due to dystocia or prolonged nascency, which may be evidenced by meconium staining
• • Premature birth (<142 days' gestation)
• • Mismothering due to inexperience (e.g., ewe lamb), illness, stealing by some other ewe, lack of availability of challenge surface area, claiming of only the firstborn lamb
• • Insufficient milk available as a result of mastitis, poor late-gestation nutrition, maedi-visna (ovine progressive pneumonia) or other illness, low body condition score, poor udder or teat conformation, wool-covered udder
• • Poor environmental weather at nascency of the lambs, such as a common cold temperature (<13° C if fleece is wet), drafty conditions, and dirty or wet bedding or basis

Two exceptionally loftier-risk periods accept been recognized:

• Birth to five hours, when the lamb is wet. Losses at this fourth dimension are due primarily to hypothermia or are secondary to birth trauma.

• 5 hours to seven days, when hypothermia nearly often is secondary to hypoglycemia. Weakness subsequently 48 hours of age also may be complicated by diseases stemming from inadequate colostrum intake.

Command OF IMPORTANT DISEASES OF NEONATAL LAMBS

Entropion

Entropion usually is apparent inside the first 2 weeks of age and manifests as ocular discharge, blepharospasm, corneal edema, and corneal ulceration due to irritation from inverted eyelids, unremarkably the lower chapeau. Correction should be done immediately and may involve one of the following procedures: Mild cases may be resolved by manually everting the lid several times a day for a few days. Moderately severe cases may be resolved by an injection of penicillin into the palpebral conjunctiva. The resulting bleb should be sufficient to curl the eyelid out. Occasionally the process needs to exist repeated in 5 to 7 days. Other, surgical-type methods include pinching a small corporeality of tissue into two wound clips placed parallel to the lower lid, crushing a fold of skin with hemostats parallel to the lower lid, and cut a length of peel from beneath the lower lid and suturing it. With all of these latter methods, intendance must exist taken to auscultate sufficient pare to allow proper eversion of the eyelid. Some evidence indicates that this is a heritable condition, so lambs with entropion should not be selected as replacements, particularly rams.

Diseases Due to Clostridium spp.

Tetanus, pulpy kidney, and enterotoxemia are diseases of neonatal lambs that can be easily prevented through a routine vaccination program with a multivalent vaccine. The vaccine should contain immunizing antigens to Clostridium tetani, Clostridium perfringens types C and D, Clostridium septicum, Clostridium novyi type B, and Clostridium chauvoei. Every replacement lamb should receive a primary series after 10 to 12 weeks of historic period and a booster at least every 12 months. To ensure optimal colostral protection to their lambs, the booster should be administered to meaning ewes no later on than two weeks before the showtime expected lambing date of their breeding group.

Coccidiosis

Clinical and subclinical coccidiosis is a major cause of poor growth in lambs. Direction practices that will reduce environmental exposure to coccidial oocysts include employ of properly designed feeders that do non let for fecal contamination of the feed; provision of a clean bedding pack or slatted floors for nursing and growing lambs; and a raised water source. Thorough disinfection before lambing may reduce the level of coccidia in the environment, but developed ewes and and so lambs speedily recontaminate the pens. It oft is necessary to also use a drug that controls coccidia. Tabular array 91-2 lists the commonly used preventive treatments for coccidiosis. Feed additives should be added to free-choice pelleted or texturized lamb rations to ensure adequate intakes. A prescription ofttimes is required for addition of these coccidiostats because of the variability among countries in licensing these drugs for use in sheep. Commercial cattle feeds or supplements with coccidiostats included should not exist used because of the high chance of copper toxicity.

Table 91-2

Drugs Ordinarily Used to Control Coccidiosis in Lambs

Commercial Name	Active Ingredient	Dose (BW/solar day)	Style of Delivery	Comments
Diverse	Sulfadimidine-sulfamethazine	25–140 mg/kg	In water; four days on, 3 off, then echo	Higher dose is used for treatment (iv days); toxic if treatment is prolonged; lower dose is used for prevention/control (long term)
	Sulfaquinoxaline	13 mg/kg	0.015% solution for three–5 days
Amprol*	Amprolium	20 mg/kg	5 days as a drench; 21 days in feed or h2o	Resistance reported; toxic at college doses
Rumensin	Monensin	one mg/kg	xi mg/kg in gratis-choice–fed or 22 mg/kg in limit-fed animals in consummate feed for 6 to 8 weeks	Toxic if mixed incompletely or incorrectly
Bovatec	Lasalocid	1 mg/kg	36 mg/kg in costless-pick–fed animals for half-dozen to eight weeks	Moderate toxicity
Deccox vi% Premix	Decoquinate	0.five–i.0 mg/kg	1.v kg of premix/ton of consummate feed, or summate according to known intakes for minimum of 75 days	Not toxic; can be added to mineral premix to forestall affliction in pastured weaned lambs
Clinicox 0.5%	Diclazuril	ane mg/kg	Either i dose or 2 treatments 14 days apart at 3–4 weeks of age	Illness may occur despite handling in highly challenging environmental conditions

Neonatal Diarrhea

Lambs are susceptible to the aforementioned infectious agents every bit those identified for calves. By and large, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli causes disease at 2 to 7 days of age. Rotavirus and coronavirus may crusade diarrhea from 2 days to iii weeks of historic period. Cryptosporidia almost often impact lambs after two weeks of historic period. Salmonella spp. and Giardia are less common causes. If the flock is experiencing loftier morbidity from neonatal diarrhea during the lambing period, ewes that are still pregnant should be moved to a make clean surface area for lambing. People managing the sick lambs should not handle newborn lambs without changing and washing their clothes in disinfectant lather. Vaccination of pregnant ewes with a bovine E. coli scour vaccine has been done, but a preferred approach is first to effort to break the wheel by focusing on cleaning and disinfection of the lambing and lamb-rearing environments.

Pneumonia

The most mutual cause of pneumonia in neonatal lambs is Mannheimia hemolytica. Most oftentimes the strain involved is A2, with A1 existence the almost mutual strain in bovine pneumonia. Other agents that may be involved are Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae and Pasteurella trehalosi. Various viruses may play a office in increasing suscepti-bility of lambs to these illness agents. Ecology conditions, however, announced to be more important in determining the incidence of pneumonia in immature lambs. Stocking density, humidity, diurnal or nocturnal temperature fluctuations, extreme heat and cold, frequency of air changes, ammonia levels, and dust all increase the stress on the respiratory organisation. In outbreaks of pneumonia, metaphylaxis has been used with success. Drugs that are licensed for employ in sheep for pneumonia include brusque-interim oxytetracycline, tilmicosin (Micotil^* ), and ceftiofur (Excenel^† ). Other antimicrobials that may be effective only are not licensed for sheep include long-acting oxytetracycline and florfenicol (Nuflor^‡ ).

Generally, antimicrobial resistance is not a reason for treatment failure. About often the reason is failure to detect ill animals soon plenty or not treating for long enough. It is of import to railroad train the client to observe nursing lambs carefully for low. This should be done exterior the pen so as to not arouse the lambs until identified for further clinical examination. Necropsy of dead lambs is a good fashion to decide the reason for handling failure. A vaccine against M. hemolytica infection in sheep is not available in North America.

Footnotes

^*Provided for clients with an established relationship with the practitioner.

^*Provel, Elanco, Greenfield, IN.

^†Pfizer, New York, NY.

^‡Shering-Plough, Kenilworth, NJ.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7149567/

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